government site. Therefore, desynchronized sleep should be ascribed a homeothermic function (116). Esoteric power, useless, useful: considerations about dreams in cognitive-behavioural therapy. Spreng LF, Johnson LC, Lubin A. Autonomic correlates of eye movement bursts during state REM sleep. 58. Krueger JM, Obl F. A neuronal group theory of sleep function. Pontine cholinergic neurons show fos-like immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. Many studies performed during the eighteenth century confirmed such statement (4,7). Silent functional magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates focal activation in rapid eye movement sleep. Considering that desynchronization is predominant all over the cortex in humans and in the frontal cortex of both cats and rats, we consider it to be a phylogenetically more recent functional acquisition. 39. and transmitted securely. The reason for such vegetative adjustments is obviously that the nervous tissue is metabolically very demanding, so much so that 20% of the inspired oxygen goes to the nervous system. In addition, zif-268 is up-regulated in several novelty or learning behavioral paradigms, including two-way active avoidance (104), brightness discrimination (105), and enriched environment exposure (106). Exploring the neural correlates of dream phenomenology and altered states of consciousness during sleep. Where do dreams come from? 127. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:867-76. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1963. For instance, zif-268 has been shown to induce the expression of a synapse-specific protein, synapsin II (101), and has been linked to the induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation (102,103) and other plasticity phenomena. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. "Insects are also creatures that do sleep, so much so that they can be seen resting with no movements whatsoever. Matsuyama K, Kobaysahi y, Takakusaki M, Mosi S, Kimuta H. Termination mode and branching patterns of reticuloreticular and reticulospinal fibers of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis in the cat: an anterograde PHA-L tracing study. 50. University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London edition 1985. Gardner Jr R, Grossman WI, Roffwarg HP, Weiner H. The relationship of small limb movements during REM sleep to dreamed limb action. In cats, Thomas & Benoit (18) have found oniric activity during synchronized sleep, similar to what we described in rats as pre-paradoxical sleep (19,20) as intermediate phase. Dreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. Aristotle. Pompeiano O. 77. Interestingly enough, if body temperature in cats subjected to pontomesencephalic transection is lowered, the amount of desynchronized sleep increases. 112. Perspective of Motor Behavior and its Neural Basis. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. Around 80 per cent of such motor activity was found to occur during desynchronized sleep, what points to its participation in dreaming activity. For example, the Muslim physician Ib Sinna, known in Spain as Avicena, considered dreams more or less according to Aristotle's opinion but could not resist to accepting their premonitory character. 93. Milbrandt J. In: The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming, Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. Consequently, Foulkes concludes that they do not dream but this conclusion is probably incorrect, inasmuch as at this age children have a highly limited narrating capacity and their poor reports about dreams are certainly linked to such a limitation, not their absence. Sleep research: pictures from the early years. When a dream is a nightmare, both motor and vegetative events may be very intense. Rerum Natura, I et II. ), Brainstem Mechanisms of Behavior. 2022 Nov 3;12(11):1832. doi: 10.3390/jpm12111832. 92. Since memorized information is the basic material to build up dreams, it is understandable that many (but not all) dreams are threatening and emotionally highly charged (111). Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. However, we still do not know why most motor units are inactivated while a few ones are mobilized, causing real but incoherent and non-efficient movements. Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:1645-50. Sci Am 1990;263:86-8,90-2,94-6. By lesioning the alphacoeruleus nuclei such an inhibitory effect is prevented and during oniric activity the movements generated by the dream itself can be expressed, as was clearly demonstrated in Jouvet's Laboratory (50,51) in cats; the animal suddenly gets up, walks, miews and strikes with the paws, as if the animal were awake. The discovery of the close association between rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and dreaming and development of sleep laboratory techniques ushered in a new era in the study of dreams. 117. activation-synthesis. Baldissera F, Broggi G. An analysis of potential changes in the spinal cord during desynchronized sleep. & Ajmone-Marsan, C. Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C, Sameshima K, yamashita R. Theta waves and behavioral manifestations of alertness and dreaming activity in the rat. (36,37) have recorded contraction of the tympanic muscles (stapedius and tensor tympani) during human sleep. Arch Psychiat Nervenkrankh 1938;109:1-17. Xerxes, in fact, had discovered an important aspect of dreams but his oracle discarded such an explanation, in favor of the mystic one. Roldan E, Weiss TT. (57). 126. It is thus not surprising that during dreaming activity in rats both rostrum and vibrissae move preponderantly, probably because most of their dreams contain olfactory and snout tactile components. 75. Hernndez-Pen R. A neurophysiologic model of dreams and hallucinations. Rados R, Cartwright RD. A related point of view was put forward by Krueger & Obal (1993), who proposed that, on the basis of use-dependent synaptic stabilization, the neuronal assembly not activated during wakefulness will be activated during sleep, to prevent it from atrophy (117). This may be related to the presence of pet animals in most families in the Western countries and consequently this "subject" probably becomes the main thought of children. WebPsychoanalytic theory of dream: Advanced by Freud, the psychoanalytic theory of dream stands as the most valid and fundamental among all the theories of dream. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. 43. It has, however, been utilized with a great success in sleep studies. Another change of the electro-oscillograms we disclosed in rats by carefully analyzing their time-course while a dream is on (as well as during attentive wakefulness) is the presence of short periods of desynchronization that interrupt or superimpose on theta waves. In: Baust, W. Timo-Iaria C. Early research on dreaming. Neuroscience 1997;78:13-38. 71. Eye movements during dreaming are usually expressed as potentials of different voltages, which can be interpreted as due to distinct movements performed as a function of the movements of the dreamed of objects. 118. Editor-translator: Gallop, D., Aris & Phillips Ltd., Warminster, England 1991. 24. Several authors also quantified the kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. Exp Brain Res 1989;74:11-23. 90. The other is that dreams are caused by forebrain activation by dopamine. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. 2020 Nov 12;11:565694. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.565694. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992;2:759-63. J Neurophysiol 1954;17:532-57. This organ receives information from the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as shown by Moruzzi (80). Karger, Basel, 1997:65-76. The previous station of these nuclei is the interpeduncular nucleus, whose stimulation with carbachol caused sleep within nearly 30 seconds. 16. McCarley RW, Nelson JP, Hobson JA. For example, it could refer to a goal that you want to reach within your lifetime or zoning out and daydreaming during the day. the apparitions. Generation of sleep is reasonably well known but not that of dreaming. Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep. There are many hypotheses to account for the existence of dreams but it is still a matter of debate why and what for we dream. It would appear that the intense activation of desynchronized sleep must overcome this demodulation and persist into subsequent waking, in order for very vivid dreams to be remembered. Confrontations Psychiatriques 1986;27:153-81. Wiley-Interscience, New york 1990:535-583. Raven Press, New york 1981:405-429. For instance, during desynchronized sleep theta waves, in rats, are highly coherent in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the fronto-parietal cortex, as well as with the hippocampus (78). The neurophysiological mechanisms of the postural and motor events during desynchronized sleep. Braz J Med Biol Res 1990;23:617-20. However, considering the high prevalence of dreams during this phase it should be more appropriately named oniric phase of sleep. Lucrce. Physiology and Psychology. Penile erection, that also occurs in monkeys, is present during desynchronized (paradoxical or REMsleep) but it is not necessarily linked to erotic dreams. Oka T, Iwakiri H, Mori S. Pontine-induced generalized suppression of postural muscle tone in a reflexively standing acute decerebrate cat. Problems with Physiological function Theory This does Eine Methodik der Ableitung localisierter Potentialschwankungen aus subcortikalen Hirngebieten. Jouvet (12,119), one of the most important researchers on sleep, suggests that dreaming is "a guardian and programmer of the hereditary part of our personality" and as such it plays a role in our general behavior. Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the 96. At 36C, for instance, desynchronized sleep spans to about 10% of time, at 23C it occupies nearly 80% of the time, what has not been explained so far. According to this author, in children at the age of two, when the hippocampus, which is still in the process of development at birth, becomes functional, REM sleep takes on its interpretive memory function (134). Brainstem control of the events of REM sleep. 34. Vogel GW, Foulkes D, Trosman H. Ego functions and dreaming during sleep onset. From a very weak inhibition in early infancy, it goes up rapidly up to 15 years of age, evolving asymptotically from this period on. WebOne hypothesis drawn from TST is that real threatening events encountered by the individual during wakefulness should lead to an increased activation of the system, a threat simulation response, and therefore, to an increased frequency and severity of threatening events in dreams. Braz J Med Biol Res 1992;5:745-50. 121. Some of his statements, hereby reproduced in a simplified form from his book on sleep and dreams, briefly illustrate his contribution to the study of this subject: "All creatures that have four limbs and are sanguine (mammals) display signs that they dream while asleep. Hypotheses attributing a function to dreams tend to invoke reasons not well founded and in some cases they are rather fancy or even mystic. Kubin L, Davies RO, Pack AI. Some authors have not been able to find changes in heart rate and respiration during desynchronized sleep (61) but there are striking demonstrations that blood pressure is reduced (figure 6), attaining values as low as 60 mmHg of systolic pressure; heart rate is also reduced and ventilation decreases (38,62). 129. Doricchi F, Violani C. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: a contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. 86. If this hypothesis is correct, it is no surprise that the phases of wakefulness and sleep are expressed in the cerebellar cortex by means of electrophysiological potentials. 60. Eye movements in humans predominate because vision is our main sensory channel and our visual memory is overwhelmingly predominant, resulting in preponderance of visual dreams. 2009 Nov;10(11):803-13. doi: 10.1038/nrn2716. 53. Hansotia P, Broste S, Ruggles K, Wall R, Friske M. Eye movement patterns in REM sleep. 42. PMC McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). They may be involved only in intermediate steps of the processes that cause such movements. Fortunately, thanks to this peculiar incomplete motoneuron inhibition we are able to record movements occurring in both humans and non-human animals and thus infer the presence of dreams. eCollection 2021 Aug 12. 65. Winson (1990) believes that dreams "reflect an individual strategy for survival. 44. Our data with rats are quite consistent as to the variation of blood pressure and heart rate during oniric activity. Physiol Rev 1967;47:117-77. Schmidek WR, Hoshino K, Schmidek M, Timo-Iaria C. Influence of environmental temperature on the sleep-wakefulness cycle in the rat. We spend a lot of time sleeping. Accessibility In fact, all the phases of wakefulness and sleep, including desynchronized sleep, occur in the cerebellar cortex. Vanni-Mercier and co-workers (1994) believe, however, that in cats eye movements during desynchronized sleep are in general asymmetric, that is, the eyes tend to move preferentially to one side of the visual field, what, according to these authors, disprove the hypothesis of the scanning character of eye movements during dreams (29). Hobson JA. The same holds true for animals that live in water, such as fishes, molusks, crustacea and other similar animals; it is impossible to invoke as a proof that they do sleep the shutting of their eyes, inasmuch as they do not have eyelids but it is obvious that they periodically do rest, immobile, what perhaps does explain why at night their predators attack them heavily and devour them. Frequency clearly increases and becomes regular, as compared with the trend before oniric activity. Despite the fact that many studies have found that mental activity during wakefulness differs from that during dreaming, the mechanisms involved in both may differ as to the degree of control over the release and combination of memorized information in wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep. 87. Later research argues that dreams are physiological, beginning with random electrical impulses deep within the brain stem. Usually such increases in blood pressure are not enough to lead it to attain normal levels but during a nightmare blood pressure may go up to 200 mmHg. Cravo SLD, Lopes OU, Fraga CAB, Timo-Iaria C. Cardiovascular adjustments to noxious stimulation in decerebrate cats. In more recent years several approaches confirmed these findings (89). Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1992;16:25-30. According to Mancia (1995), the brain "produces dreams" as "a symbolic process of elaborating, interpreting and reorganizing in narrative sequences all the material accumulated in the memory during waking hours". Life Science 1989;45:1349-56. After transection of the brain stem at the pontomesencephalic transition, rostrally to locus coeruleus, desynchronized sleep still occurs below the transection (10,90-93). HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 1992;16:372-97. Timo-Iaria C, yamashita R, Hoshino K, Sousa-Melo A. 105. J Physiol (Paris) 1984;79:365-74. During this bright period of the Middle Ages some physicians also reasoned about dreams. Electrophysiologically, it has been shown that the same type of hippocampal cells that are activated during training in a radial maze are also endogenously reactivated during sleep, which accounts for memory consolidation and for a close correlation between dreams and events preceding sleep (87). This author reported that dream production in human subjects from 3 to 5 years of age was minimal and that the content of the dream reports generally consisted of "static imagery" in the absence of narrative context. The reason why when we dream we are walking we do not get out of the bed and really walk, or when we dream we are talking to someone we do not really talk, is that neural circuits located in the neighborhood of locus coeruleus, in the pontine tegmentum, inhibit the motoneurons and do not allow the real movements to occur. 29. 52. Hence, experiments with such animals are extremely valuable and thus will be emphasized in the present review. Elsevier Publishing Company Amsterdam, 1962. 20. In non-human animals the report regarding dreams is obviously impossible but, fortunately, a dream can be detected in both humans and other species by analyzing its motor, vegetative and electrophysiological manifestations, as will be described below. 26. In both instances sleep evolved according to the phases of synchronized and then of desynchronized sleep, during which eye movements always occurred. Fos-like immunoreactivity was also found in association with cholinergically induced REM sleep (107,108). 107. eCollection 2020. Geschichte der Physiologie. Kohyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Nikami T, yamaki T, Veda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Nature 1989;340:474-6. (eds.) sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal This site needs JavaScript to work properly. On the other hand, cells that were silent during the behavioral task did not show the increase in frequency. Grimm R, Tischmeyer W. Complex patterns of immediate gene induction in rat brain following brightness discrimination training and pseudotraining. Possible role for the transcription factor zif268/egr-1, polyoma enhancer activator 3, and AP2. In humans, both reflex activities are also deeply inhibited during desynchronized sleep. Magoun HW, Rhines R. An inhibitory mechanism in the bulbar reticular formation. doi: 10.1093/nc/nix009. Two major theories have been proposed regarding the neural circuits involved in dreaming. Later, the Roman writer Lucretius, the first popularizer of science, in his book De Rerum Natura (1978) credited these Greek philosophers for the discovery of the characteristics of sleep and dreams (2). It is well known that during desynchronized sleep the pupil undergoes an increase in diameter (midriasis), which is not produced by direct sympathetic activation but rather to parasympathetic inactivation, that overcomes the tonic pupillary constrictor activity of the parasympathetic system during synchronized sleep. The hypothesis has been recently put forward by Revonsuo (2000) that the function of dreaming is to simulate threatening events, and to rehearse threat perception and threat avoidance (111). This statement is incorrect, inasmuch as electro-oscillograms during both states in humans are not so similar as to confound an observer and in rats we have found that theta waves that occur in both attentive wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep are largely different. He gives In rats only the frontal cortex presents desynchronization whereas in all the remaining cortex, and in many subcortical sites, the electro-oscillograms oscillate as theta waves. Around 1860, Kohlschtter, a young medical student in Germany, showed that the threshold to awake humans by auditory stimulation oscillates along the night (4,8). Timo-Iaria C, Negro N, Schmidek WR, Rocha TL, Hoshino K. Phases and states of sleep in the rat. Epub 2009 Oct 1. Herodotus, in his Histories, the first textbook on History ever written, tells that the Persian King Xerxes dreamed quite often about the war he was about to fight against Athens. Wehr TA. 21. De Sanctis, whose main research on sleep was the incorporation of sensory stimulation into dreams, states in his book that "by measuring the pulse and observing the movements in humans and other animals during sleep it is possible to detect the occurrence of dreaming and sometimes even to guess the dream content". Psychoanalysis also considers dreams as the expression of repressed wishes; this is undoubtly true as to only a few dreams, whereas several studies reveal, instead, that most dreams are closely related to the events of the previous day, as Aristotle had already demonstrated. REM sleep and dreaming: towards a theory of protoconsciousness. 78. Miyauchi et al. Van de Castle RL. Jouvet M. Neurophysiology of the states of sleep. Winson J. Oswald I. World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:22-3. 25. Much effort was devoted to searching for parallels between physiological aspects of REM sleep and characteristics of associated dreams, with modest results. This neural activity is then interpreted by the brain as an internal activity. In nocturnal macrosmatic animals, olfaction is the predominant sensory channel and their vibrissae are usually very long, to detect the presence of objects at relatively large distances. The atonia of myoclonia of active (REM) sleep. Electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes bilateral muscle atonia in decerebrate cats (52). WebHe says the function of dreams is that by reproducing difficult or unsolved life situations or experiences, the dream aids towards a solving or resolution of the problems. Berlucchi G. Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen. Desynchronized sleep has been identified in many mammals and birds (16) but below the birds only in crocodiles brief periods of an equivalent phase (eye movements, low voltage electro-oscillograms and cervical hypotonia) seem to occur (17). In 1986 Vertes advanced the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the brain stem (dreaming?) (1996) and Braun et al. Jouvet M, Michel F, Courjon J. Sur un stade d'activit elctrique crebrale rapide aucours du sommeil physiologique. Recently a more acceptable evidence in favor of the consolidation hypothesis arises from the study of a gene involved in neuronal activation This gene protein, zif-268 (98), binds to a specific DNA molecule present in the promoters of a variety of genes expressed in the nervous system (99) and its up-regulation is thought to initiate a program of gene regulation leading to neuronal plasticity (100). It is interesting to consider that while muscles all over the body are paralyzed during sleep, respiration is little affected, except that some muscles in the upper respiratory airways are inhibited during sleep (44). University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London edition 1985 12 ( 11 ):803-13. doi: 10.1038/nrn2716 to...: considerations about dreams in cognitive-behavioural therapy winson ( 1990 ) believes that dreams `` reflect individual... ( 1990 ) believes that dreams `` reflect An individual strategy for survival appropriately named oniric phase sleep... 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